With relatively small oil reserves, Oman is important to world oil markets primarily because of its strategic location overlooking the Strait of Hormuz. Also, an ongoing oil and gas exploration program recently has doubled the country's natural gas reserves, which could make Oman a key energy supplier in the next century.

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RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Higher oil prices and economic reforms helped boost Oman's economy sharply in 1996 and 1997. Oman's real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate for 1996 was 5.8% and an estimated 5.9% for 1997. Inflation was a low 1.3% during 1996, and an even lower 1.1% for 1997. Moreover, Oman also continues to register a positive trade balance.

Oil remains critical to Oman's economy, accounting for about 80% of total export revenues and contributing about 40% to GDP. Although oil prices for 1997 have been lower than 1996, they have been higher than in 1994 and 1995, and oil remains a significant force behind Oman's strong economy. The manufacturing, services, and agricultural sectors were also major contributors to Oman's high growth in 1996 and 1997.

Oman has embarked on privatization and diversification programs that have not only contributed to higher growth but also have begun to make Oman's economy less dependent on oil. In 1996, Oman initiated a five-year development plan designed to shape economic policy until the year 2000. Privatization, reformed investment laws, and economic diversification away from the oil sector are the key elements in this economic plan. The restructuring process promotes growth in agriculture, fishing, light industry, tourism, and natural gas. The plan calls for investments of $26.23 billion in all sectors of the economy over five years and a balanced budget by 2000. It also calls for increased growth in the non-oil sectors so that the oil sector's share of GDP falls to 31% by 2000. The plan also incorporates an "Omanization" policy which is designed to increase the number of Omani nationals in the workforce. Currently, of the total labor force, only 36% are Omani, and the plan calls for an increase to 40% by 2000.

In recent years, Oman has put forth great efforts to attract foreign investments. In November 1994, the government revised its investment law, raising the maximum percentage of foreign ownership from 49% to 65%. Also, full foreign ownership is now permitted under special conditions. Furthermore, Oman's 1997 budget includes a new tax code aimed at providing tax relief to companies with foreign shareholders. Taxes on these firms will now have a ceiling of 7.5%, the same as for Omani companies. Under the previous tax code, firms with foreign shareholders paid tax rates between 15% and 25%.

OIL
In many ways, Oman is atypical of Middle Eastern oil producers. For one thing, oil was not discovered in commercial quantities until 1962 - decades after most of its neighbors. For another, Oman's oil fields are generally smaller, more widely scattered, less productive, and more costly than in other countries. Finally, Oman is not a member of OPEC or OAPEC, but is a leader in IPEC, the main independent petroleum exporter's organization. Oman sees its role as that of an intermediary between OPEC and IPEC.

Most of the country's proven oil reserves of 5.1 billion barrels are located in the northern and central regions. In the north, the Yibal, Natih, Fahud, al-Huwaisah, Lekhwair, and Shibkah fields combined contain an estimated 1.8 billion barrels of reserves. Most of the crude oil found in this region is light, with gravities in the 32^o-39^o API range. Heavier oil is found in southern Oman, particularly in the Nimr and Amal fields. Oman's main export blend is a medium sour crude.

At current production rates, Oman is projected to exhaust its oil reserves by around 2010. However, successful exploration programs over the past several years have resulted in annual reserve increases that have offset production depletions. About 500 million barrels of new reserves were discovered in 1994. Some of these "newly" discovered reserves were in fact discovered previously, but were considered uneconomical to develop. Horizontal drilling and other enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques have made production of these reserves more economical in many cases.

A central priority for Oman's oil industry is to increase domestic production. In late 1994, the Ministry of Petroleum and Minerals (MPM) announced plans to spend $4 billion in oil exploration and development through 1999. Roughly 18% of this amount is targeted for exploration, 44% for the development and installation of production facilities, and the remaining 38% for operating expenses. In recent years, Oman has had success in meeting this priority. In 1996, total oil production reached around 893,000 barrels per day (bbl/d), up from about 861,000 bbl/d for 1995. For the first 10 months of 1997, oil production leveled off at 894,000 bbl/d. Oman's objective is to keep pushing oil production upward, aiming to reach one million bbl/d by 2000. To reach this target, Oman's strategies are to develop new fields, to further develop existing fields using EOR techniques and drilling new wells using horizontal drilling technology, and to use 3D-seismic technology. Use of these advanced technologies has already successfully boosted output by 30,000-50,000 bbl/d in recent years.

Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), the country's second-largest employer after the government, holds over 90% of the country's oil reserves and accounts for about 94% of production. PDO is a consortium comprised of the Omani government (60%), Shell (34%), Total (4%), and Partex (2%). However, Shell operates most of the country's key fields, including Yibal and Lekhwair. As part of its strategy to push oil production to one million bbl/d, PDO has set out to develop additional production, processing, and export facilities. In December 1997, PDO awarded a front end engineering and design contract to Electrowatt Engineering Services of Switzerland. Under the terms of the award, Electrowatt will design initial development plans for the Makhaizna oil field, located in southern Oman, including production facilities and an associated pipeline. Construction of the first phase is tentatively scheduled to begin by the end of 1998. Also in December 1997, PDO awarded a design contract to UK-based Mott MacDonald for a planned oil and gas processing plant. Construction plans call for a facility with an installed processing capacity of 53,000 cubic feet per day, and construction is expected to cost $100 million. The processing plant is to be located at Al-Noor, and project designs are scheduled to be complete in early 1998.

Yibal, discovered in 1962, is Oman's largest producing oil field and supplies approximately one-quarter of PDO's total production. In 1986, the field's output was boosted from 120,000 bbl/d to more than 140,000 bbl/d with the installation of water injection facilities. Production was increased further following the completion of a $200-million development project, called Yibal Shusiba Phase II, in 1994. The project involved drilling 96 wells, mostly horizontal, and modifications to production stations B, C, and D, which included the installation of gas injection facilities. Yibal is now producing around 180,000 bbl/d.

Oman's second largest oil field, the Rima/Jalmud group, was discovered in 1979 and is located in the southern part of the country. Rima/Jalmud is currently producing about 96,000 bbl/d from more than 120 wells.

In 1992, a $300-million water injection project was completed at PDO's Lekhwair oil field -- Oman's third largest. Production at the field subsequently increased from 26,000 bbl/d in 1992 to the current rate of 100,000 bbl/d. In addition to new production and injection facilities, the Lekhwair project involved drilling over 115 wells, including 21 horizontal ones, and the construction of four gas pipelines. The lines connect Lekhwair to the Yibal gas plant and will be needed as production of associated gas increases.

Occidental, Elf Aquitaine (Elf), Japex Oman, and International Petroleum Bukha (IPBL), a subsidiary of Canada's IPC, account for the balance of Oman's oil production. In 1996, Occidental produced 41,000-bbl/d of 42^o API crude oil from its Safah field on the Omani-United Arab Emirate border. The Safah field has estimated recoverable reserves of about 120 million barrels. In addition, Oxy has active exploration efforts in the area. In its Suneinah block, Oxy, holding a 65% stake, recorded three discoveries in 1995 and two in 1996. In late September 1997, Oman awarded Oxy Block 31 located in northeastern Oman. The concession covers a 2,763-square-mile tract and Oxy agreed to invest $45 million over seven years for prospecting, including seismic studies and exploratory wells. Oxy holds a 100% stake in the concession. Elf is producing 46^o API crude oil from its small Sahmah and Ramlat fields. However, the company estimated in mid-1994 that Sahmah's reservoir was 80% depleted. Output from Sahma, which came online in 1980, has fallen from 13,000 bbl/d in 1992 to a little more than 4,000 bbl/d in 1995. Japex Oman began production of 7,500 bbl/d from its small Daleel field in 1990. The company began producing around 10,000 bbl/d from Daleel after a 10-well expansion program begun in July 1994. Japex recently drilled 10 more wells in an effort to maintain production levels. In addition, Japex was awarded Block 35 in 1996 for further exploration efforts. Finally, IPBL's Bukha offshore facility was producing nearly 5,000 bbl/d of condensate and 1,100 bbl/d of LPG in 1995.

Other foreign companies involved in Oman include Total, Nimir, Phillips Petroleum, Triton Energy, Arco, and Canada's Gulf Stream Resources. In July 1995, Total obtained a 10,000 square-mile concession block, formerly held by Germany's Wintershall. The concession, known as Block 4, is located in Siwan in eastern Oman. As part of the concession agreement, Total agreed to spend at least $66 million through 2004 on exploratory work in Siwan. In 1996, Oman awarded three exploration blocks to three foreign firms. Blocks 22, 32, and 36 were awarded to Triton Energy, Arco, and Phillips Petroleum respectively. Also, Nimir took over Block 3 in 1997, which was previously held by Amoco. Finally, Gulf Stream Resources was awarded a 460-square-mile concession in July 1997. Gulf Stream holds a 100% stake in the concession, known as Block 30, and will invest $60 million over eight years.

Refining and Petrochemicals
In 1982, Oman constructed its first refinery at Mina al-Fahal. Subsequently, the 50,000-bbl/d plant was expanded to 85,000 bbl/d. Output from the facility, which is operated by the state-owned Oman Refinery Company (ORC), is used to meet local demand for gasoline, jet fuel, gas oil (diesel), kerosene, LPG butane, and bunker fuel. In January 1997, the Omani government announced that it was considering plans for construction of a new refinery at Salalah, a port city located in the southern tip of Oman. Construction of the new refinery could take 2-3 years to complete and is tied to the construction of a new port at Salalah. Plans for the refinery call for a fluid catalytic cracker to reprocess heavy material from Oman Refinery Company (ORC) to produce gasoline. Planned capacity has been set at 50,000 bbl/d. No timetable for the refinery has been established and an award has not been granted; however, three companies submitted proposals: US-based UOP, Stone & Webster of the United Kingdom, and MW Kellogg Company of the United States.

As part of its effort to diversify the economy and to develop domestic value-added industries, Oman has moved to invest in petrochemical production. In April 1995, Neste-Borealis, a Finnish-Norwegian venture, signed a letter of intent to study the feasibility of constructing a 260,000 ton per year ethylene plant and two polyethylene plants. The proposed $700-$800 million complex would take 5 years to build and would have the capacity to produce 65,000 bbl/d of polypropylene for export, possibly to Asia. In addition, the Omani government is planning a $830 million fertilizer plant in Sur to convert gas-derived ammonia into urea. The project is being developed as a joint venture between the Oman Oil Company (OOC) and Krishak Bharati Co-Operative and Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers both of India. In April 1997, OOC awarded a construction contract for the plant to an international consortium comprised of Italy's Snamprogetti, Technip of France, and Consolidated Contractors International Co. of Greece. Construction plans call for two ammonia and two urea units with installed production capacities of 1,750 tons per day and 2,200 tons per day respectively. The consortium will also install a power generation plant, construct a jetty, and build a storage area including two liquid ammonia tanks each capable of storing 30,000 tons as well as two urea units with a holding capacity of 100,000 tons each. When complete, the plant will be one of the largest of its kind in the world, producing 1.45 million tons per year of urea for export to India.

In addition to domestic refining projects, Oman also is engaged in various refining projects overseas, particularly in India. One project involves construction of a 120,000 bbl/d refinery at Bina, in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, to be operated by Bharat Oman Refineries. In addition to the refinery, the project will include the construction of a crude oil pipeline from the coast to Bina and storage facilities, which have increased the project's overall cost to an estimated $1.76 billion. A second 120,000 bbl/d refinery project was planned for Deogad about 155 miles south of Bombay. However, the project was canceled by India's Hindustan Petroleum Corporation in February 1997 following objections from India's environment ministry and other local groups. In Pakistan, OOC agreed in October 1994 to provide the financing for the construction of a 100,000-bbl/d refinery in Sindh. In Thailand, OOC had considered minority stakes in two refineries. In May 1995, however, OOC dropped out of its plans for a 25 percent share in a Caltex venture to build a 130,000-bbl/d refinery at Rayong. However, OOC is still evaluating an investment with Sukhotai Petroleum to construct a 130,000-bbl/d refinery.

Foreign Activities
OOC was formed in 1992 as part of a strategy both to promote Oman's overseas downstream interests as well as to diversify Oman's domestic energy sector. Although officially state-owned, OOC was, until recently, registered in Bermuda and headquartered in Houston, Texas. In December 1995, however, OOC's President, John Deuss, resigned and the company now is registered and headquartered in Oman.

During his tenure as President, John Deuss helped mediate between the government of Kazakhstan and Chevron on a variety of issues, including development of the Tengiz oil field and development of an oil export route for Kazak oil. One of OOC's most significant activity in Kazakhstan has been its participation in developing the Caspian Pipeline Consortium (CPC), which includes Kazakhstan and Russia. In May 1997, the governments of Oman, Russia, and Kazakhstan signed an agreement to build an oil pipeline from the Tengiz oil field in western Kazakhstan to the Russian port of Novorossiysk on the Black Sea. At a cost of $2 billion, the 932-mile pipeline will have an initial capacity of 560,000 bbl/d and should be operational by 1999. Russia will hold a 24% interest in the pipeline, Kazakhstan 19%, and Oman 7%. The remaining shares are held by private oil companies participating in the CPC.

In May 1997, OOC signed an agreement with Union Texas Petroleum to explore for, develop, and produce oil and gas in Kazakhstan. The companies will form a joint venture, with Union Texas holding a 75% interest and OOC holding the remaining 25%. The joint venture will explore two onshore blocks in the Atyrau region of Kazakhstan and two offshore blocks in the Kazakhstan sector of the Caspian Sea. The onshore blocks, known as Blocks A and E, are located north of the Tengiz oil field in northwestern Kazakhstan and cover about four million acres. The venture will obtain 1,245 miles of seismic data over the two blocks during 1997 and 1998 and will drill two exploratory wells 1999. The joint venture has acquired preferential rights to select two offshore blocks in the Caspian Sea. It will make the 15th and 16th block selections following the Kazakstancaspishelf Consortium's selections of the first 14 blocks.

NATURAL GAS
As part of its economic diversification strategy, the government is attempting to transform Oman into a major natural gas exporter. Through an extensive exploration program, Oman has consistently increased its natural gas reserves in recent years. In 1996, Oman had proven reserves of 25 trillion cubic feet (Tcf). For 1997, proven reserves jumped 20% to 30 Tcf. About one-third of this amount is associated gas, most of which is located in the Natih and surrounding fields. Over 10 Tcf of Oman's non-associated gas is located in deep geological structures, many of which are beneath active oil fields.

About two-thirds of Oman's gas production is associated gas, and one-third non-associated. PDO produces the majority of Oman's associated gas, as well as non-associated gas from Yibal and Lekhwair. In the late 1970s, MPM built a gas pipeline and processing facilities in order to utilize, rather than flare, associated gas. Much of Oman's natural gas is used either for electricity production, for water desalinization, or for reinjection into oil wells. Oman is also considering proposals to build two new gas pipelines. The proposed lines would link Sohar and Salalah to the existing gas network. The pipeline to Sohar would be designed to supply a planned aluminum smelter and petrochemicals complex and may meet some domestic power demands. The pipeline to Salalah will mainly serve short-term domestic power requirements. No timetable has been set for construction; however, OOC is reportedly close to finalizing a contract with Arthur D. Little for a feasibility study on both lines.

Gas Export Projects
At present Oman is actively moving forward with one major gas export project, a $5-billion, 6.6-million ton per year LNG plant. The project is under development by the Oman Liquefied Natural Gas Company (OLNGC) which is comprised of the Omani government (51%), Shell (30%), Total (5.54%), Mitsubishi (2.77%), Mitsui (2.77%), Partex (2%), and Itochu (0.92%). In February 1997, Korea LNG, which includes Korea Gas Corp., Samsung, Hyundai, Daewoo, and Yukong, bought a 5% stake from Shell reducing Shell's stake to 30%. The proposed plant is to consist initially of two 3.3 million ton/year trains supplied by non-associated gas from the recently discovered Saih Nihayda, Saih Rawl, and Barik gas field, and is to be constructed on the east coast of Oman at Al Ghalilah near Sur. Under current plans, gas is to be transported via a $600-million, 250-mile pipeline to the plant. The first train is scheduled to be on stream by mid-1999, and a second and possibly a third train could also be built by 2005, raising total capacity to as high as 10 million tons/year. In late May 1996, U.S. Foster Wheeler Corp., along with Japan's Chiyoda Corp., were chosen by OLNGC to conduct the main engineering, procurement, and construction work on the plant. Foster Wheeler and Chiyoda also plan to work with two Omani companies -- Suhail Bahwan and Zubair Enterprises. In October 1996, a sales and purchase agreement (SPA) was signed with Korea Gas Corporation to supply South Korea with 4.1 million tons of LNG per year for 25 years beginning in 2000. A second agreement was scheduled to be signed with the Petroleum Authority of Thailand in March 1997 following the signing of a memorandum of understanding (MOU) in mid-1996. The MOU called for Thailand to purchase up to 2.2 million tons of LNG per year over 25 years starting in 2003. However, in November 1997, Thailand announced that it had decided to delay the final deal until 2007 due to economic uncertainty in Thailand which has decreased demand for gas. Another MOU was signed with Japan's Osaka Gas Company in October 1997. Under the agreement Osaka will purchase 660,000 tons of LNG per year for 25 years starting in 2000. A final SPA is expected in early 1998.

Oman's second gas export project is a proposed $5-$10 billion pipeline to India. This project currently appears to be on hold. In September 1994, Oman signed an agreement with India to build a 600-mile underwater pipeline to carry Omani gas from Ras al-Jifan to Gujarat on India's western coast. Under this agreement, the pipeline would support natural gas exports of around $50-billion over the project's lifetime. The first phase would supply 1 Bcf per day by 1999. Subsequently, a second 1-Bcf pipeline would be built by 2001.

In 1994, a feasibility study was completed by a consortium comprised of McDermott, Bechtel, ETPM, and Saipem and Snamprogetti. Construction of the unprecedented 11,500-foot deep pipeline was originally set to begin in mid-1995. In April 1995, however, Omani officials announced that more time was necessary to overcome the technical problems associated with the depth of the pipeline, which would be over four times deeper than the world's present deepest underwater pipeline. By January 1997, Omani officials announced that Oman was abandoning the project. The officials cited doubts over the project's technical feasibility and whether Oman has sufficient reserves for the pipeline and other planned natural gas projects. Nevertheless, the Gas Authority of India and OOC set up a joint working group to provide additional information on technical feasibility, gas reserves and financing. The additional studies could take up to two years and new bids for the pipeline's construction may be required.

ELECTRIC POWER
Oman's government has recognized that it needs private sector involvement to meet the country's rapidly growing demand for electricity. It has therefore decided to sell off several power plants, including the al-Manah project, Oman's first private power station and first build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT) project. In addition, Oman has proposed constructing several new power plants. PDO has said that it is considering construction plans for a $52 million power plant configured with two 30 megawatt (MW) turbines. The plant would be built in conjunction with PDO's development of the Saih Rawl gas fields. Moreover, the Ministry of Electricity & Water has recently proposed building two new gas-fired power plants in the Ibri area in Dhahirah and the Al-Kamil area in Sharqiya. Cost estimates and timetables were not released; however, the proposed plant at Al-Kamil would reportedly have an installed generating capacity of 300 MW.

COUNTRY OVERVIEW
Head of State: Sultan Qaboos bin Sa'id
Independence: 1650 (end of Portuguese rule)
Population (1997E): 2.3 million
Location/Size: Southeast Arabian Peninsula/82,030 sq. mi. (about the size of Kansas)
Major Cities: Muscat (capital), Salalah, Sur, al-Khasab
Languages: Arabic (official), English
Ethnic Groups: Arab, Baluchi, South Asian (Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Bangladeshi), African
Religion: Muslim (Ibadi -- 75%, Sunni, Shi'a), Hindu
Defense (8/96): Army (25,000), Navy (4,200), Air Force (4,100), Royal Household (6,500)

ECONOMIC OVERVIEW
Currency: Omani Rial
Market Exchange Rate (10/97): $1 = 0.385 Omani Rial
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (1997E): $15.7 billion
Real GDP Growth Rate (1997E): 5.9%
Inflation Rate (consumer prices)(1997E): 1.1%
Current Account Balance (1997E): -$0.6 billion
Major Trading Partners: Japan, United Arab Emirates, South Korea, United Kingdom, United States, Thailand
Merchandise Trade Balance (1997E): $2.8 billion
Major Export Products: Petroleum, fish, processed copper, textiles
Major Import Products: Machinery, transportation equipment, manufactured goods, food, livestock, lubricants
Oil Export Revenues (1997E): $6.0 billion
Oil Export Revenues/Total Export Revenues (1997E): 80%
Monetary Reserves (7/94, non-gold): $894 million
Total External Debt (1996E): $3.8 billion

ENERGY OVERVIEW
Minister of Oil and Gas: Mohammed al-Ramhi
Proven Oil Reserves (1/1/97): 5.1 billion barrels
Oil Production (1st 10 mos 1997E): 894,000 barrels per day (bbl/d), of which 884,000 bbl/d is crude oil
Oil Consumption (1996E): 44,000 bbl/d
Net Oil Exports (1996E): 826,000 bbl/d
Crude Oil Refining Capacity (1/1/97): 85,000 bbl/d
Oil Export Customers (1997): Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, China, Yemen, Taiwan
Natural Gas Reserves (1/1/97): 30.0 trillion cubic feet
Natural Gas Production (1996E): 149 billion cubic feet (Bcf)
Natural Gas Consumption (1996E): 131 Bcf
Electric Generation Capacity (1/1/96): 1.7 gigawatts
Electricity Production (1996E): 8.0 billion kilowatthours

ENVIRONMENT OVERVIEW
Total Energy Consumption (1996E): 0.23 quadrillion Btu
Energy Consumption per Capita (1996E): 100 million Btu (vs. 351.9 million Btu in US)
Energy Consumption per $1987 of GDP (1996E): 16.6 thousand Btu (vs. 16.7 thousand Btu in US)
Energy-related Carbon Emissions (1996E): 3.7 million metric tons (<0.1% of world carbon emissions)
Carbon Emissions per Capita (1996E): 1.6 metric tons (vs. 5.5 metric tons in US)
Major Environmental Issues: Water scarcity, soil salinity, oil pollution

OIL AND GAS INDUSTRIES
Organizations: Petroleum Development Oman Ltd. (PDO) controls all oil resources. PDO is a partnership between the Omani government (60%), Royal Dutch/Shell (34%), Total (4%), and Partex (2%). Oman Oil Company (OOC) is the overseas investment arm of the Ministry of Petroleum, until recently headquartered in Houston and headed by John Deuss.
Major Foreign Oil Company Involvement (non-PDO): Arco, Elf, IPC, Itochu, Japex, Occidental, Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Neste Oy, Nimir, Phillips, Sumitomo, Triton, Wintershall
Major Oil Fields: Roughly 1.8 billion barrels in reserves are located in the large northern structure containing the Yibal, Natih, Fahud, al-Huwaisah, Lekhwair, and Shibkah fields. Other key fields are the southern Marmul and Nimr fields as well as Occidental's 120-million barrel Safah field and the estimated 400-million barrel Amal Eastern High field, which contains heavy crude oil.
Major Refinery (capacity): Mina al-Fahal (85,000 bbl/d)
Major Oil Terminal: Mina al-Fahal
Oil Pipeline System: 1,674 miles, with a throughput capacity of 900,000 bbl/d.

For more information from EIA on Peruiat, please see:
EIA - Country Information on Oman

Links to other sites:
1997 CIA World Factbook - Oman
Country Report on Economic Policy and Trade Practices - Oman (1996) - U.S. Department of State
U.S. State Department's Consular Information Sheet - Oman

The following links are provided solely as a service to our customers, and therefore should not be construed as advocating or reflecting any position of the Energy Information Administration (EIA) or the United States Government. In addition, EIA does not guarantee the content or accuracy of any information presented in linked sites.
The Center for Middle Eastern Studies - Oman
Oman Studies Centre
ArabNet: Oman
Country Commercial Guide for Oman from Tradecompass
CIA Atlas of the Middle East

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File last modified: January 14, 1998

Contact:

Lowell Feld
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Phone: (202)586-9502
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URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/oman.htm